Stem Cells

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Definiton

Stem cells are primary, unspecialized cells, which are characterized with unlimited self-renewal capacity and differentiation into specialized descendant progenitor cells forming tissues and organs. Stem cells exist both in embryos and adult organism. The proper function of the organism depends on tissue homeostasis, and the maintenance of homeostasis is related with stem cell pool, that balances the number of somatic cells in the body. In every organ of the organism systematically appears new cells, which maturate and differentiate into organ-specific cells, and after fulfilling their specific biological function they undergo into programmed cell death called apoptosis. Stem cells, residing in the stem cell niche of a given organ, receive signals from the microenvironment of damaged tissue and initiate the repair process leading to tissue regeneration.

Stem Cell Types

  1. Totipotent stem cells – they are the most primordial cells – the only type of cells capable to differentiate into all types of embryonic cells and form whole organism. They arise as a result of fertilization forming zygote and then in further developmental process they create the blastomers. Totipotent stem cells are capable to form both embryo and extra-embryonic structures such as placenta connecting the embryo with the mothers organism.
  2. Pluripotent stem cells – these cells are descendants of totipotent stem cells and can give rise to cells of the three germ layers: ectoderm, endoderm and mesoderm. The cells are capable to organize and form any tissue (except placenta) in the process of embryogenesis. Along with fetal development and formation of individual tissue structures, the cells lose their pluripotent character in favor of tissue-specific character. The pluripotent cells can be found only during embryonic development and they are unable to go back into totipotent cells.
  3. Multipotent stem cells– the cells are characterized with ability to differentiate and form tissue within one of the three germ layers
    • The first germ layer (ectoderm) – nerve, epithelium, skin appendages,
    • The second germ layer (endoderm) – digestive system, respiratory system, endocrine system, urinary tract, sense organs,
    • The third germ layer (mesoderm) – bone, cartilage, skeletal muscle, smooth muscles, heart muscle, tendons, ligaments, adipose tissue. The example of multipotent cells of third germ layer are Mesenchymal Stem Cells. Multipotent cells reside in cellular niches, and their number usually decreases with age and with the body's ability to renew itself.
  4. Unipotent stem cells– specialized cells with a preserved ability to divide (unlike mature cells), capable to form one cell types of given definite tissue. The example of unipotent stem cells are satellite cells capable to differentiate into myoblasts and then myocytes forming myofibres of skeletal muscle. Another example are osteoblasts capable to differentiate into osteocytes and form bone tissue. The tissue resident unipotent cells respond to damage signals from local environment by activation and starting the process of tissue regeneration.[1]

Classification of stem cell types by source of origin

  1. Embryonic Stem Cells (ESC) – derived from embryo cells (totipotent stem cells) or inner cell mass (pluripotent stem cells), they are able to differentiate into all type of cells of whole organism. However, the use of embryonic stem cells for therapeutic purpose arise ethical concerns, therefore their application should not be considered in regenerative medicine.
  2. Fetal and Perinatal Stem Cells – can be acquired from cord blood, cord tissue and postpartum placenta - their natural reservoir. In standard conditions the perinatal tissues are discarded according to medical procedures. [2] [3] [4] [5]
  3. Somatic Stem Cells– cells residing in the adult body responsible for tissues regeneration. These are multipotent stem cells (eg. hematopoietic cells) as well as unipotent cells (eg. satellite cells of skeletal muscle). The acquisition of somatic stem cells is well documented [6] [7] [8] [9] [10] [11] and many of them have found application in cellular therapies eg. hematopoietic cell transplantation in the hematological disorders.

Bibliography

  1. ↑ Zakrzewski W, Dobrzyński M, Szymonowicz M, Rybak Z. Stem cells: past, present, and future. Stem Cell Res Ther. 2019 Feb 26;10(1):68. doi: 10.1186/s13287-019-1165-5
  2. ↑ In 't Anker PS, Scherjon SA, Kleijburg-van der Keur C, de Groot-Swings GM, Claas FH, Fibbe WE, Kanhai HH. Isolation of mesenchymal stem cells of fetal or maternal origin from human placenta. Stem Cells. 2004;22(7):1338-45. doi: 10.1634/stemcells.2004-0058
  3. ↑ Miao Z, Jin J, Chen L, Zhu J, Huang W, Zhao J, Qian H, Zhang X. Isolation of mesenchymal stem cells from human placenta: comparison with human bone marrow mesenchymal stem cells. Cell Biol Int. 2006 Sep;30(9):681-7. doi: 10.1016/j.cellbi.2006.03.009
  4. ↑ Corrao S, La Rocca G, Lo Iacono M, Corsello T, Farina F, Anzalone R. Umbilical cord revisited: from Wharton's jelly myofibroblasts to mesenchymal stem cells. Histol Histopathol. 2013 Oct;28(10):1235-44. doi: 10.14670/HH-28.1235
  5. ↑ Kwon A, Kim Y, Kim M, Kim J, Choi H, Jekarl DW, Lee S, Kim JM, Shin JC, Park IY. Tissue-specific Differentiation Potency of Mesenchymal Stromal Cells from Perinatal Tissues. Sci Rep. 2016 Apr 5;6:23544. doi: 10.1038/srep23544
  6. ↑ Crisan M, Yap S, Casteilla L, Chen CW, Corselli M, Park TS, Andriolo G, Sun B, Zheng B, Zhang L, Norotte C, Teng PN, Traas J, Schugar R, Deasy BM, Badylak S, Buhring HJ, Giacobino JP, Lazzari L, Huard J, Péault B. A perivascular origin for mesenchymal stem cells in multiple human organs. Cell Stem Cell. 2008 Sep 11;3(3):301-13. doi: 10.1016/j.stem.2008.07.003
  7. ↑ Murray IR, West CC, Hardy WR, James AW, Park TS, Nguyen A, Tawonsawatruk T, Lazzari L, Soo C, Péault B. Natural history of mesenchymal stem cells, from vessel walls to culture vessels. Cell Mol Life Sci. 2014 Apr;71(8):1353-74. doi: 10.1007/s00018-013-1462-6
  8. ↑ Elahi KC, Klein G, Avci-Adali M, Sievert KD, MacNeil S, Aicher WK. Human Mesenchymal Stromal Cells from Different Sources Diverge in Their Expression of Cell Surface Proteins and Display Distinct Differentiation Patterns. Stem Cells Int. 2016;2016:5646384. doi: 10.1155/2016/5646384
  9. ↑ Dumont NA, Rudnicki MA. Characterizing Satellite Cells and Myogenic Progenitors During Skeletal Muscle Regeneration. Methods Mol Biol. 2017;1560:179-188. doi: 10.1007/978-1-4939-6788-9_12
  10. ↑ Klimczak A, Kozlowska U. Mesenchymal Stromal Cells and Tissue-Specific Progenitor Cells: Their Role in Tissue Homeostasis. Stem Cells Int. 2016;2016:4285215. doi: 10.1155/2016/4285215
  11. ↑ Kozlowska U, Krawczenko A, Futoma K, Jurek T, Rorat M, Patrzalek D, Klimczak A. Similarities and differences between mesenchymal stem/progenitor cells derived from various human tissues. World J Stem Cells. 2019 Jun 26;11(6):347-374. doi: 10.4252/wjsc.v11.i6.347
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